The Roman epoch. About the first inhabitants of Austria it is known very little. Poor historical data testify to existence dokeltskogo the population. Nearby 400–300 in BC there were aggressive Celtic tribes with the adverb, religious cults and traditions. Having mixed up with ancient inhabitants, Celts have formed kingdom Norik. In the beginning 2 century BC the power of Rome extended to Danube. However Romans have been compelled to struggle constantly with the nomadic German barbarians interfering from the north through Danube, serving by border of the Roman civilisation. Romans have constructed the strengthened military men of camp in Vindobone (Vienna) and in Karnunte, in 48 km from the first; in area Hoer Markt in Vienna the rests of the Roman constructions were saved. Around average Danube Romans promoted development of cities, crafts, trade and an ore treating industry, have constructed roads and buildings. Emperor Mark Avrely (has died in Vindobone in 180 AD) Has composed in Karnunte a part of the immortal Reflections. Romans spread pagan religious practices, secular institutes and customs, Latin language and the literature among local population. To 4 century concerns hristianizatsija this region.
In 5 and 6 centuries the German tribes have flooded the most part of the Roman possession in the western part of modern Austria. Nomads have intruded in east and southern parts of modern Austria – avars tjurkojazychnye, together with them (or after them) the slavic people – the future Slovenes, Croats and Czechs among whom avars were dissolved migrated. In the western areas missionaries (Irish, francs, angly) have turned into Christian belief of Germen-pagans (bavarov); the centres of Christian culture of a steel of the city of Salzburg and Passau. Approximately in 774 in Salzburg the cathedral has been built, and by the end 8 century the local archbishop has received the power over the next dioceses. Monasteries (for example, Kremsmjunster) were under construction, and the reference of Slavs has begun with these islands of a civilisation in Christianity.
Intrusion of Hungarians into East stamp. Charles Veliky (742–814) has crushed avars and began to encourage the German colonisation of East stamp. German poselentsy received privileges: it gave allotments which were processed by slaves. Cities on Average Danube again have blossomed. The board of francs in Austria has ended suddenly. The empire Karolingov was devastated ruthlessly by Hungarians. These aggressive tribes could make strong and deep impact on a life of an average part of a valley of Danube. In 907 Hungarians have grasped East stamp and from here made bloody attacks to Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine. Otton I, the German emperor and the founder of Sacred Roman empire (962), has won a powerful Hungarian army in 955 on the river Leh near Augsburg. Pushed aside on the east, Hungarians were gradually settled more low on a current in fertile Hungarian plain (where their descendants live till now) and have accepted Christian belief.
Board Babenbergov. The place of the expelled Hungarians was occupied with the German immigrants. Bavarian East stamp which covered at that time area round Vienna, has been passed in 976 as lennoe possession to sort Babenbergov, whose patrimonial possession settled down in a valley of Main in Germany. In 996 territory of East stamp for the first time it has been named Ostarriki.
Leopold III (rules in 1095–1136) was one of outstanding representatives of dynasty Babenbergov makrgraf. Ruins of its lock on a grief Leopoldsberg near Vienna were saved. Monastery Klosternojburg and majestic tsistertsianskoe abbey in Hajligenshtadte, a place of burial of the Austrian governors is nearby located. Monks in these monasteries cultivated fields, learnt children, made annals and looked after patients, appreciably promoting education of the neighbouring population. German poselentsy finished development of East stamp. Methods of cultivation of the earth and cultivation of grapes have been improved and new settlements are based. Along Danube and in the country the set of locks, such, as Djurnshtejn and Aggshtejn has been constructed. In city crusades prospered, and the riches of governors grew. In 1156 emperor has appropriated a title of the duke to the margrave of Austria Henry II. The Earth Shtirija, to the south from Austria, has got Babenbergam by right of succession (1192), and parts of the Top Austria and Krotny have been got in 1229.
Austria has entered a time of blossoming in board of duke Leopold VI which has died in 1230, having become famous as the ruthless fighter with heretics and Moslems. Generous gifts showered monasteries; again created monastic orders, Franciscans and Dominicans, have been warmly accepted in duchy, poets and singers were encouraged.
Vienna, long time staying in decline, in 1146 became residence of the duke; the big advantage has been taken from trade development thanks to crusades. In 1189 it for the first time it is mentioned as civitas (city), in 1221 gets the city driver's licence and in 1244 them confirms, having received the formal city privileges defining the rights and duties of townspeople, regulating activity of foreign dealers and providing city council education. In 1234 for inhabitants-Jews the law on their rights which held good before exile of Jews from Vienna almost 200 years later has been published more humane and educated, than in other places. In the beginning 13 century of border of a city have been expanded, there were new strengthenings.
Dynasty Babenbergov has died away in 1246 when duke Fridrih II was lost in fight with Hungarians, not having left successors. Struggle for Austria – important in the economic and strategic relation territory has begun.
Strengthening of the Austrian state at Gabsburgah. The Pope has passed a vacant throne of duchy to margrave Herman Badensky (rules in 1247–1250). However the Austrian bishops and the feudal nobility have selected the duke of Czech king Przhemysla II (Otakara) (1230–1278) which has supported the rights to the Austrian throne with a marriage on sister of the last Babenberga. Przhemysl has grasped SHtiriju and has received under the marriage contract Carinthia and part Krajny. Przhemysl achieved a crown of Sacred Roman empire, but on September, 29th by 1273 king has been selected columns Rudolf Gabsburgsky (1218-1291), respected both for the political prudence, and for ability to avoid disputes with papacy. Przhemysl has refused to recognise its election, therefore Rudolf has resorted to force and has crushed the contender. In 1282 – one of key dates in the Austrian history – Rudolf declared the earths of Austria belonging to it hereditary possession of house Gabsburgov.
From the very beginning Gabsburgi considered the earths as private possession. Despite struggle for a crown of Sacred Roman empire and family contentions, dukes from house Gabsburgov continued to expand borders of the possession. Already earlier attempt to attach to it the earth Forarlberg in the southwest has been undertaken, but it managed to be finished only to 1523. Tirol has been attached to possession Gabsburgov in 1363 therefore the Austrian duchy has closely drawn near Apenninsky peninsula. In 1374 the part of Istria leaving to northern extremity of Adriatic sea has been attached, and in 8 years port Trieste has voluntary joined Austria to be released from domination of Venetians. The representative (class) assemblies consisting of noblemen, clergy and townspeople have been created.
Duke Rudolf IV (rules in 1358–1365) planned joinings to the possession of kingdom of Czechia and Hungary and dreamt to achieve full independence of Sacred Roman empire. Rudolf has based the Viennese university (1365), financed expansion of a cathedral St. Stefana and supported trade and crafts. He has died suddenly, and not having realised the ambitious plans. At Rudolf IV Gabsburgi began to carry a title ertsgertsogov (1359).
Economy of Austria in Renaissance. During the peace periods trade with the next princedoms and even with far Russia blossomed. To Hungary, Czechia and Germany the goods carried across Danube; on volume this trade was comparable to trade on a great Rhine way. Trade with Venice and other North Italian cities developed. Roads that facilitated transportation of the goods improved.
Germany served as a favourable commodity market for the Austrian wines and grain, Hungary bought fabrics. Economic iron-wares were exported to Hungary. In turn, Austria bought the Hungarian livestock and minerals. In Zaltskammergute (nizhne-Austrian East Alpes) the table salt considerable quantity was extracted. Internal requirements for the majority of products, except clothes, domestic manufacturers provided. The handicraftsmen of one speciality united in shop, lodged often in certain city areas to what names of streets in old corners of Vienna testify. Well-founded members of shops not only supervised affairs in the branch, but also participated in management of a city.
Political successes Gabsburgov. Fridrih III. With election of duke Albrecht as V German king in 1438 (under Albrecht's name II) prestige Gabsburgov has reached the apogee. Having married the successor of a royal throne of Czechia and Hungary, Albrecht has increased dynasty possession. Nevertheless its power in Czechia remained nominal, and soon both crowns have been lost for Gabsburgov. The duke was lost on road to a place of fight with Turks, and in reign of his son Vladislav of possession Gabsburgov have considerably decreased. After Vladislav's death communication with Czechia and Hungary has been completely broken off, and Austria is divided between successors.
In 1452 uncle Albrecht V Fridrih V (1415–1493) has been crowned as the emperor of Sacred Roman empire under name Fridriha III. In 1453 it became Austrian ertsgertsogom, and from now on up to formal liquidation of Sacred Roman empire in 1806 (not including a short time interval in 18 century) Gabsburgi saved an imperial crown.
Despite infinite wars, and also mutinies of noblemen and inhabitants of Vienna, Fridrihu III it was possible to expand the possession, having attached a part of Istria and port Rijeka (1471). Fridrih believed that dynasty Gabsburgov can win all world. The formula «AEIOU» (Alles Erdreich ist Oesterreich untertan, «All earth is subordinated Austria») became its motto. It inscribed this abbreviation on books and has enjoined to cut on public buildings. Fridrih married the son and successor Maksimiliana (1459–1519) to Maria Burgundskoj. As dowry Gabsburgam the Netherlands and the earths in territory of present France has got. During this period rivalry Austrian Gabsburgov with the French kingdom which proceeded up to 18 century has begun
Maksimilian I (the king in 1486, the emperor in 1508) as which sometimes consider as the second collector of possession Gabsburgov, has got, except possession in Burgundy, areas Goroitsija and Gradiska d'izontso and small territories in southern parts of modern Austria. It has entered into the agreement with the cheshsko-Hungarian king about transfer of cheshsko-Hungarian crown Maksimilianu in the event that Vladislav II will die, not having left the successor of a male.
Thanks to the skilful unions, the successful inheritance and favourable marriages family Gabsburgov has achieved impressive power. Maksimilian has found perfect parties for son Phillip and grandson Ferdinand. The first married Juan, the successor of Spain with its huge empire. Possession of their son, emperor Charles V, surpassed possession of any other European monarch to or after it. Maksimilian has agreed about Ferdinand's marriage on successor Vladislav, the king of Czechia and Hungary. Its marriage policy was based on dynastic claims, but also aspiration to transform pridunajskuju Europe in the rallied Christian bastion against Islam. However apathy of the people in the face of Muslim threat complicated performance of this problem.
Along with insignificant reforms in management Maksimilian encouraged innovations in military area which foretold creation of constant regular army instead of military aristocracy of soldiers-knights. Expensive marriage contracts, the disorder in the finance and military expenses devastated the state treasury, and Maksimilian resorted to large loans, mainly at rich magnates Fuggerov from Augsburg. In exchange those have received concessions mining operations in Tirole and other areas. From this a source means for payoff of an electoral vote of the emperor of Sacred Roman empire undertook. Maksimilian was a typical sovereign of Renaissance. It patronised the literature and education, the humanist from Augsburg and the expert in the Roman antiquities, and German artist Albrecht Djurer who, in particular, illustrated the books written by the emperor supported scientists and people of art, such, as Konrad pojtinger. Other governors from sort Gabsburgov and aristocracy encouraged fine arts and have collected rich collections of pictures and the sculptures which have become later by pride of Austria.
In 1519 grandson Maksimiliana Charles has been selected by the king, and in 1530 became the emperor of Sacred Roman empire under Charles's name V. Charles corrected empire, Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Spain and the Spanish overseas possession. In 1521 it has made the brother, ertsgertsoga Ferdinand, the governor pridunajskih the earths Gabsburgov which concerned actually Austria, SHtirija, Carinthia, Krajna and Tirol.
Joining of Czechia and Hungary. In 1526 armies Sulejmana Magnificent have intruded in Hungary. Civil strifes in country ruling class have facilitated a victory a Turk, and on August, 29th colour of the Hungarian cavalry has been destroyed in the field Mohacha, and the capital Buda capitulated. Running after defeat at Mohacha young king Louis II was lost. After his death Czechia (with Moravia and Silesia) and the Western Hungary have departed to Gabsburgam. Till that time inhabitants of possession Gabsburgov spoke almost exclusively in German, short of the population of small slavic enclaves. However after joining of Hungary and Czechia the Danube power became rather diverse on structure of the population the state. It has occurred just when in the west of Europe there were mononational states.
Czechia and Hungary possessed own brilliant past, national sacred and heroes, traditions and languages. In each of these countries were available both the national class and provincial diets in which rich magnates and clergy dominated, but was much less noblemen and townspeople. The royal power was carried more likely nominal, rather than real character. The empire Gabsburgov has switched on in the structure many people – Hungarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Serbs, Germans, Ukrainians and the Romanian. The court yard in Vienna has undertaken a number of measures to integrate Czechia and Hungary into patrimonial possession Gabsburgov. The central governmental managements have been reorganised so that to correspond to requirements of the extended power. The palace office and secret council which advised the emperor mainly concerning a world policy and the legislation began to play a visible role. The first steps for replacement of tradition of election of monarchs in both countries have been undertaken by law of succession Gabsburgov.
Intrusion a Turk. To rally Austria, Hungary and Czechia threat of a Turkish gain has helped only. 200-thousand army Sulejmana moved ahead on a wide valley of Danube and in 1529 has approached to walls of Vienna. After a month garrison and inhabitants of Vienna have compelled Turks to raise a siege and to recede to Hungary. But wars between the Austrian and Osmansky empires proceeded with breaks throughout a life of two generations; also has passed almost two centuries while armies Gabsburgov completely have not expelled a Turk from historical Hungary.
Lifting and recession protestantizma. The centre of distribution of the reformed Christianity on Danube steels of area of residing of Hungarians. Many landowners and peasants in Hungary have accepted a Calvinism and a Lutheranism. Luther's doctrine involved many German-speaking townspeople, in Transylvania wide liking were called by a current unitariev. In east part of actually Hungarian earths the Calvinism prevailed, and among a part of Slovaks and Germans has gained distribution a Lutheranism. In that part of Hungary which has got under control Gabsburgov, protestantizm has encountered considerable resistance from Catholics. The court yard in Vienna, highly appreciating value of a Catholicism for maintenance of the absolute power of the king, has proclaimed its official religion of Hungary. Protestants have been obliged to pay money for maintenance of Catholic religious institutes and during long time were not supposed on the state posts.
Reformatsija has unexpectedly quickly extended in the Austria. Just invented publishing has allowed both contradictory religious camps to publish and extend books and brochures. Princes and priests combated often for the power under religious banners. The big number believing in Austria have left Catholic church; ideas Reformatsii were proclaimed in a cathedral St. Stefana in Vienna and even in a family chapel of a ruling dynasty. Anabaptistsky groups (for example, mennonity) have extended then in Tirole and Moravia. To the middle 16 century the obvious majority of the population of Austria, appear, has accepted protestantizm in this or that form.
However there were three powerful factors which not only constrained distribution Reformatsii, but also promoted returning of the most part of neophytes in a bosom of Catholic church: the intrachurch reform proclaimed the Tridentsky cathedral; Jesus Society (an award of Jesuits) which members as confessors, teachers and preachers have concentrated the activity on the reference in this belief of families of large land owners, correctly having calculated, that their peasants then will follow belief of the misters; and the physical compulsion which was carried out by the Viennese court yard. Conflicts have poured out in Thirty-year war (1618–1648) which has begun in Czechia where has deeply taken roots protestantizm. In 1606–1609 Rudolf II number of agreements guaranteed to the Czech Protestants a freedom of worship. But when the emperor became Ferdinand II (rules in 1619–1637), Protestants in Czechia have felt threat to the religious freedom and the civil rights. The zealous Catholic and authoritative governor Ferdinand II, bright representative Kontrreformatsii, has given the order about suppression protestantizma in the Austria.
Thirty-year war. In 1619 Czech diet has refused to recognise as emperor Ferdinand and has selected the king kurfjursta Fridriha V, pfaltsgrafa Rhine. This demarche has led to the beginning of Thirty-year war. The insurgents dispersing on all major questions, hatred to Gabsburgam connected only. By means of mercenaries from Germany army Gabsburgov in 1620 nagolovu has broken the Czech insurgents in fight at the White Mountain near Prague. The Czech crown has been once and for all fixed to house Gabsburgov, the diet is dispersed, and the Catholicism is declared by unique lawful belief.
The estates of the Czech Protestant aristocrats occupying almost half of territory of Czechia, have been divided between younger sons of Catholic nobility of Europe, basically a German origin. Up to disintegration of the Gabsburgsky monarchy in 1918 Czech aristocracy spoke mainly in German and it has been betrayed a ruling dynasty.
During Thirty-year war the population of Gabsburgsky empire has had huge losses. The end to a slaughter-house has put the Vestfalsky world (1648) according to which Sacred Roman empire which was switching on Germany and Italy, actually stopped the existence, and many princes owning its earths, could carry out the old dream of independence of the power of the emperor. However Gabsburgi still saved an imperial crown and influence on state affairs of Germany.
Victory over Turks. In second half 17 century of army of osmanli Turks have renewed an impact to Europe. The Austrians have led struggle against Turks for the control over the bottom current of the rivers Danube and Sava. In 1683 huge Turkish army, having used revolt in Hungary, again besieged Vienna within two months, and has again caused a huge damage to its suburbs. The city was overflowed with refugees, artillery bombardment has caused a damage to a cathedral St. Stefana and to other architectural monuments.
The besieged city has been rescued by polsko-German army under command of Polish king Yana Sobesky. On September, 12th 1683, after fierce firing, Turks have departed and more already never came back to walls of Vienna.
Since this moment Turks began to give in gradually, and Gabsburgi took from the victories all new benefits. When in 1687 most part of Hungary with capital Budoj it has been released from Turkish sovereignty, the Hungarian diet in a gratitude sign recognised the law of succession of man's line Gabsburgov on the Hungarian crown. However thus was it is stipulated, that before the introduction on a throne the new king should confirm all «traditions, privileges and prerogatives» the Hungarian nation. War against a Turk proceeded. The Austrian armies have won almost all Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania and the most part of Slovenia that was is officially fixed Karlovitsky by the world (1699). Then Gabsburgi have turned the looks to the Balkans, and in 1717 Austrian commander prince Evgenie Savojsky has grasped Belgrad and has intruded in Serbia. The sultan has been compelled to concede Gabsburgam small Serbian area round Belgrad and more a number of small territories. In 20 years the Balkan territory has been again grasped by Turks; Danube and Sava became border between two great powers.
The Hungary which has appeared under the power of Vienna, has been devastated, its population has decreased. Extensive sites of the earth have been passed noblemen, loyal Gabsburgam. The Hungarian peasants have moved on the free earths, and invited by a crown foreign poselentsy – Serbs, Romanians and first of all German Catholics – have occupied southern areas of the country. By estimations, in 1720 Hungarians made less than 45 % of the population of Hungary, and in 18 century their share continued to be reduced. Transylvania has saved the special political status at management from Vienna.
Though the Hungarian constitutional privileges and local authorities have not suffered, and tax privileges of aristocracy have been confirmed, court yard Gabsburgov had possibility to impose the will to the Hungarian ruling elite. The aristocracy, which ground possession grew together with its fidelity to a crown, remained correct Gabsburgam.
During the periods of mutinies and contentions 16 and 17 centuries seemed time and again, that the multinational state Gabsburgov is on the threshold of inevitable crash. Nevertheless the Viennese court yard continued to encourage a development of education and arts. The basis of universities in Graz (1585), Salzburg (1623), Budapest (1635) and Innsbruck (1677) became major landmarks in an intellectual life.
Military successes. In Austria the regular army equipped with fire-arms has been created. Though gunpowder began to be used for the first time on war in 14 century, 300 years that guns and artillery have turned to really terrible weapon were required. Artillery pieces from iron or bronze were so heavy, that for their moving it was necessary to harness at least 10 horses or 40 oxen. For protection against bullets, burdensome both an armour was necessary for people and for horses. Fortifications became more thickly counting on artillery bombardment. The neglect to infantry has gradually disappeared, and the cavalry though has decreased in number, almost has not lost the former prestige. Military actions substantially began to be reduced to a siege of the strengthened cities what needed many live force and equipment.
Prince Evgenie Savojsky has reconstructed armed forces on the sample of army of France where it has received a military education. A food has been improved, armies took places in barracks, veterans were allocated with the earth won at a Turk. Nevertheless aristocrats from the Austrian military command soon began to obstruct reform. Changes were not deep enough to allow Austria to win in struggle against Prussia in 18 century However throughout generations armed forces and bureaucracy served Gabsburgam as the strong support necessary for preservation of integrity of the multinational state.
Economic situation. Basis of the Austrian economy there was an agriculture, but simultaneously there was a growth of manufactory manufacture and the financial capital. In 16 century the country industry some times worried crisis because of the inflation called by import to Europe of precious metals from America. At this time the crown had not to address for the financial help to usurers any more, now the state credit became a source of means. In sufficient quantity for the market iron in SHtirii and silver in Tirole was extracted; in smaller volume – coal in Silesia.
Architectural masterpieces. After the sensation of Turkish threat has disappeared, in empire Gabsburgov cities intensive building has begun. Masters from Italy trained local designers and builders of churches and palaces. In Prague, Salzburg and especially in Vienna were vozdvignuty buildings in a Baroque taste – elegant, graceful, with rich external and internal furnish. Magnificently decorated facades, wide ladders and magnificent gardens became characteristic lines of city residences of the Austrian aristocracy. Among them the magnificent palace the Belvedere with the park, constructed by prince Evgenie Savojskim was allocated.
The ancient residence of a court yard in Vienna, Hofburg, has been expanded and decorated. Court yard office, the huge church Karlskirhe which was under construction 20 years, both an imperial summer palace and park in SHyonbrunne – only the brightest constructions in a city which shone with the architectural magnificence. In all territory of a monarchy churches and the monasteries hurt or destroyed during war have been restored. A Benediktinsky monastery in Melke, located on a rock over Danube, – the typical sample of baroque in rural Austria and a symbol of celebration kontrreformatsii.
Blossoming of Vienna. The Vienna which has become at last by archiepiscopate, was the centre of Catholic Germany and power Gabsburgov capital. In a city people of art and dealers from all Austria, from Czechia and Hungary, from Spain and the Netherlands, from Italy and Southern Germany were flown down.
The court yard and aristocracy encouraged development of theatre, fine arts and music. Along with popular theatrical representations the opera in the Italian style prospered. The emperor wrote operas in which played ertsgertsogini. The local folk music which has glorified Vienna all over the world, has arisen in city vegetable marrows, havens for singers and musicians. During this period bases of that has made residence Gabsburgov musical capital of Europe have been put in pawn.
Austria in 18 century. On an extent of 1700th years Austria has gone through severe military tests, has achieved new tops of power and prestige and has reached considerable successes in the field of culture. In the beginning prospects for development were represented not shining completely not. Good luck has turned away from emperor Charles VI (rules in 1711–1740). Not having successors of a male, he was afraid, that the multinational state after his death will plunge into internal conflicts or will be dismembered by foreign powers. To avoid it, the court yard has entered negotiations with ground diets and the foreign states on purpose to achieve a recognition the successor of a throne of daughter Charles, Maria Terezii.
These efforts were accompanied in the beginning by success. The official document known under the name of the Pragmatical sanction 1713, provided, that all possession Gabsburgov should remain indivisible for all times and be passed on a seniority. However at the statement of this decision diets of Czechia and the Hungarian earths have let know, that if dynasty Gabsburgov will die away, they can select to themselves other ruling house.
Empress Maria Terezija (rules in 1740–1780). According to the Pragmatical sanction 1713, Maria Terezija has ascended to the Austrian throne (1740). The heavy burden of responsibility has laid down on shoulders of the 23-year-old empress. King Fridrih II Prussian has immediately made a complaint for the most part of a prospering province of Silesia entering into the Czech kingdom.
The Prussian monarch did not recognise Maria Terezii's right to Charles's inheritance VI and has declared intention to release from Catholic Austria half silezskogo the population which professed protestantizm. The king of Prussia has attacked Silesia without any formal occasion or declaration of war that contradicted accepted international to the norms. So long struggle between Prussia and Austria for domination in the Central Europe which has ended with definitive military defeat of Austria in 1866 has begun. France and a number of the small German princedoms have taken part In attack to possession Gabsburgov, aspiring to expand the possession.
Unprepared to war and the armed Austria is worse has easily conceded to a prompt impact of the enemy. From time to time began to seem, that the monarchy breaks up. Obstinate and courageous, Maria Terezija has made a decisive step, having addressed to the Hungarian citizens behind the help. In reply to promises of real concessions the Hungarian magnates have shown the loyalty, but their help has appeared insufficient. In 1742 most part of Silesia has departed to Prussia. Despite numerous attempts of Austria to return the lost province, Prussia owned this earth up to the Second World War termination. Aspiring to improve a country world situation, the empress concluded dynastic marriages of children (those from 16 who has reached a maturity). So, Maria Antoinette became the bride of the successor of a throne of France, future king Louis XVI.
Thanks to rough political events in Europe Austria has made a number of territorial acquisitions. In the beginning of century the Spanish Netherlands (present Belgium) which remained some kind of a colony up to 1797 have been attached. Rich provinces in Italy have been got: Tuscany, the most part of Lombardy, Naples, Parma and Sardinia (last three were kept by Austria not for long). In many respects contrary to Maria Terezii's moral belief though and according to desires of her son Joseph, Austria has adjoined Russia and Prussia in the first section of Poland (1772) and has received princedoms Osventsimsky and Zatorsky, a southern part Krakow and Sandomirsky voevodstv, Russian (without the Holmsky earth) and Belzsky voevodstva. In this territory lived about one million person, there were fertile earths and hydrochloric mines. 23 years later under the power of Austria there was one more part of Poland, with its ancient capital Krakow. Claims on northern part of the Moldavian princedom to the southeast from Galicia have been put forward also. This area was supervised by Turks; in 1775 it Bukovina has been switched on in state Gabsburgov structure under the name.
Internal reforms. Measures on perfection of the mechanism of the government in Austria and Czechia, to strengthening of unity and stability of provinces, overcoming of chronic financial deficiency and improvement of a status of economy as a whole have been taken. Prussia served in all these spheres as the sample and an enthusiastic example. In Austria have considered, that upgrade will raise military power of the state, will confirm claims of Austria on the status of great power and will prepare a way for easing of power of the king of Prussia Fridriha. The Austrian armed forces, the government and tax system have been completely reconstructed. The central place by government reorganisation was occupied with the state council having consultative functions and consisting of experts from each of departments on internal affairs. The new Supreme court has been created, and the judicial system has been separated from government system. According to tendencies, characteristic for the Education epoch, new codes of laws have been published. Foreign policy and military departments have undergone to radical updating. Military expenses have increased, have been entered centralised rekrutsky a set. The become complicated organisation of armed forces has demanded attraction bolshego number of civil workers. For increase in efficiency of the government and centralisation maintenance the contingent civil serving in Vienna and in provinces has been expanded; now they were typed from middle class. In the hereditary earths of a crown and in Czechia local landtagi have lost a number of the important functions, and the wide range of powers has been given officials of a crown, beginning from supervision of serfs and finishing jurisdiction in questions of police and education.
Reforms have concerned also villages. According to so-called corvee patents (1771–1778), corvee of peasants has been limited by three days in a week.
In economic sphere development of manufactory manufacture was encouraged. Despite resistance of traditional shop associations, the new, modern industrial enterprises were created. Hungary should serve as a commodity market for an industrial output from Austria and a granary for the Austrian cities. The general surtax, uniform system of boundary and internal duties has been entered. For the purpose of international trade expansion the small merchant marine fleet has been created, ports in Trieste and Rijeka are modernised. There were companies which carried out commercial relations with southern Asia.
The educated despotism. Son Maria Terezii, Joseph II who have become sopravitelem to mother after 1765, often entered from it disputes concerning a state policy. In 1780 it has taken reins of government in hand. The new emperor aspired to strengthen power of Austria and its unity, to improve government system. He has been convinced, that the personal power suverena should be unlimited and that it should introduce spirit of the general native land in consciousness of the people occupying the country. The decrees declaring German language state, that have been published has allowed to unify sphere of the government and to accelerate legal proceedings. Powers of the Hungarian diet have been cut down, and soon it and has at all stopped the activity. Showing culture and good will, Joseph II has proclaimed equality of all citizens before court and at taxation. Printing and theatrical censorship has been temporarily softened. The sizes of a quitrent which was paid by peasants, were regulated now by officials of a crown, and the sizes of raised taxes depended on incomes from the earth.
Though Joseph II declared itself the defender of a Catholicism, it conducted vigorous struggle against the power of the Pope. Actually he aspired to transform church in the possession into the tool of the state independent of Rome. The clergy has been deprived desjatiny and has been compelled to be trained in seminaries under the state control, and archbishops have been obliged to bring officially an oath of loyalty to a crown. Church courts have been liquidated, marriage began to be considered as the civil contract which is out of the competence of church. The number of religious holidays has been reduced, and the ornament cult buildings was regulated by the state. Approximately every third of monasteries has been closed. Joseph II has published the decree about general and obligatory school training. Means for training should allocate nobility and local authorities. Though this measure has not been up to the end carried out, attendance of schools has considerably increased.
Joseph II has untimely died in 1790. His brother, Leopold II who have well proved in a role of the governor of the Italian Tuscany, has quickly restored reeled order. The serfdom in Hungary has been restored, and in Austria the peasant though remained personally free, has got to heavier dependence on the landowner.
The Hungarian diet which was not convoked at Joseph II, has been again called and has confirmed old freedom and kingdom constitutional laws. Leopold II has made also a number of political concessions of Czechia and was crowned as the Czech king. To get support of the Czech formed estate in which the feeling of national consciousness cleared up, at the Prague university the chair of the Czech language has been founded.
Achievements in the field of culture. Under Joseph's decree II «the Theatre at a palace» (based by Maria Tereziej in 1741) has been renamed in 1776 in «Court national theatre» ("Burgteatr"), saved high level of execution to 20 century Vienna was famous for the musical culture, tone was set by Italians. In 1729 to Vienna has arrived metastazio (Petro Trapassi), having held of a post of the court poet and the librettist, he wrote texts for operas of Neapolitan Nikkolo Jommelli and Kristofa the Glitch background.
In Vienna great composers Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, representatives of so-called Viennese classical school created. A melody from a string quartet op. 76 № 3 has laid down in a basis of the Austrian national hymn (1797), and then and the German hymn.
Epoch of the French revolution and Napoleonic wars.
As well as all Europe, Austria has tested on itself consequences of the French revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte's board. Thirst of territorial captures, dynastic relationship with French queen Maria Antoinette, sister Joseph II and Leopold II, fear, that ideas of the French revolution will influence the various people of a monarchy, patriotism growth, especially among the German-speaking population – the combination of all these various tendencies and motives have made Austria the irreconcilable enemy of France.
Wars against France. Military actions against France have begun in 1792 and proceeded with breaks till the autumn 1815. Time and again for this time the Austrian armies came off second-best, Napoleon's twice grenadiers stormed the glorified Vienna, which on a population (apprx. 230 thousand persons) in Europe conceded only to London and Paris. Army Gabsburgov sustained the big losses, sufferings and deprivations of inhabitants of large and small cities are comparable with the burdens which have been gone through in world wars of 20 century the Galloping inflation, wreck of tax system and chaos in economy have put the state on an accident side.
Time and again Napoleon dictated to Austria world conditions. Emperor Frants I has been compelled to marry daughter Maria Louise to Napoleon (1810) who called earlier «the French adventurer». Peasants Tirolja led by innkeeper Andreas Goferom have lifted revolt and have shown resistance to Napoleonic armies. The Austrian armies have inflicted sensitive defeat over Frenchmen under Aspernom near Vienna (1809), but have been crushed by Napoleon in some days at Vagrama. The Austrian army Charles which military glory competed to glory of prince Evgenie Savojskogo ordered ertsgertsog: their equestrian statues decorate Heldenplats («the Area of heroes») in the centre of Vienna. Austrian field marshal Charles Shvartsenberg ordered allied armies which in 1813 have inflicted defeat over Napoleon in fight near Leipzig.
The Austrian empire. Frants I in 1804 has appropriated to the state the name the Austrian empire. At Napoleon Svjashchennaja n's will of the German nation which crown almost within four centuries was actually descended in family Gabsburgov, has stopped the existence (1806).
The Viennese congress. Territorial changes in Europe, made during Napoleon's epoch, have mentioned also Austria. It is significant, that the international congress which has put in pawn bases of the peace device after Bonaparte's overthrow, has been called in Vienna. Within several months in 1814–1815 capital Gabsburgov was a place of meetings of politicians of the higher rank of the large and small European states. Widely branched out network of the Austrian spies watched arriving honoured guests.
Presided over the Viennese debate of columns (later the prince) Klemens Metternih, the Minister for Foreign Affairs and subsequently the chancellor of Austria. On the congress it with success has provided to house Gabsburgov safe position in Europe and has prevented Russia to extend the influence on the central part of continent.
Austria has been compelled to refuse Belgium, but has received for it solid indemnification. Under a sceptre of Vienna Dalmatia, the western part of Istria, island in Adriactic Sea, earlier belonging Venice, former Venetian republic and the next Italian province Lombardy have passed. Representatives of sort Gabsburgov have received crowns of Tuscany, Parma and Modena. Austria had strong influence in the Papal States and Kingdom of Both Sicilies. As a result the Apenninsky peninsula has turned actually to an appendage of the Danube monarchy. The considerable part of the Polish Galicia has been returned Austria, and in 1846 the small Krakow republic, the unique free site of Poland saved by peacemakers in 1815 has been annexed.
Opinions on the form of the future German statehood were sharply divided. Metternihu it was possible to prevent creation of the strong union, and the friable confederation – the German union has been formed. It covered the German-speaking states of Europe and that part of Austria which entered in abolished Sacred Roman empires. Austria has received a post of the constant chairman in confederation.
Frants I and Metternih. Throughout first half 19 century a leading figure in the state life of Austria was emperor Frants I. Being the chancellor of empire, Metternih possessed considerable political weight. After excesses of the French revolution, horrors and the disorders called by Napoleonic wars, he aspired to an order and the internal consent. The chancellor repeatedly advised to create parliament from representatives of the different people of Austria and to confer to provincial diets real powers, but the emperor did not listen to its councils.
In sphere of diplomacy Metternih has brought the considerable contribution to world preservation to Europe. When the case was represented, the Austrian armies went on suppression of local revolts, creating themselves, the country and its first minister odious reputation among adherents of freedom and national association. The internal policy was defined basically by emperor Frantsem I. Government officials held all education sphere and pupils under the rigid control, ordering, that it is possible to read and study. The head of department of censorship, columns Joseph Sedlnitski, forbade on the literary works hostile absoljutizmu of the emperor or religion, and the organisations suspected of political heresy, were exposed to persecutions. It was forbidden to journalists even to use a word "constitution".
Culture development. The prestige of Vienna as musical capital remained at height thanks to Ludwig van Beethoven. pesennoj lyric poets it is possible to consider as top Frantsa Schubert's products. For the waltzes have become famous Joseph Lanner and Johann Strauss-father.
The outstanding Austrian playwright of this period was Frants Grilpartser. Easy, witty plays wrote Ferdinand Rajmund and Johann Nestroj.
In the field of religion the educated toleration prevailed. Without the consent of the emperor nobody could be separated from Catholic church. The clergy carried out supervision over education, and it was authorised to Jesuits to renew the activity in empire. Restrictions for Jews have been softened, and in Vienna synagogues of adherents both orthodox, and the reformed Judaism have been constructed. A number of families of the Jewish bankers has achieved a visible social standing and a recognition; among them Solomon Rothschild who was amicable with Metternihom was allocated and in 1823 has received a title of a baron.
Excitements among national minorities. The Czech intelligency developed the native language, literary and historical products in which medieval Czechia was sung were composed. Patriotically adjusted Czech journalists have worn the Austrian administration and restrictions in the field of a civil freedom. In Galicia the Polish patriots in 1846 have proclaimed independence of the people. However Hungarians were the most active in struggle for national freedom, the middle class of the Hungarian noblemen is more exact. The Hungarian writers and scientists revived gold pages of the past in memory and awoke hopes of the nice future. Count Ishtvan Secheni who belonged to one of the most proud aristocratic families in kingdom became the recognised apostle of cultural and national revival of Hungary. Much travelling cosmopolitan, it saved loyalty Gabsburgam, but supported reforms in management. The management of national movement was incurred by lawyer Lajosh Koshut. In 1847 its supporters have achieved the majority in the Hungarian diet.
After death Frantsa I in 1835 management of the Austrian government it has been entrusted regentskomu to council with participation Metterniha as the new emperor, Ferdinand I (1793–1875), has appeared it is incapable of management. Censorship has been softened, big freedom was received by universities.
Revolutions 1848–1849. Revolution in Paris in 1848 has responded performances in Vienna, Czechia, Hungary and the Italian provinces. The empire Gabsburgov was threatened with disintegration. Groups of students and handicraftsmen and liberally adjusted bourgeoisie demanded, that prince Metternih has retired from the state posts and in the country the constitution has been accepted. Court yard Gabsburgov has agreed. 75-year-old Metternih, were throughout two generations «an order rock», ran to England.
The Austrian Constituent assembly has cancelled the serfdom. It became the main achievement of a revolutionary storm. In October 1848 Vienna has gone through the second wave of mass excitements. Street fights which were conducted by supporters of reforms, have called serious destructions in cities. The imperial army has suppressed revolt. Prince Felix Shvartsenberg, having appropriated dictatorial powers, has replaced feeble-minded emperor Ferdinand I with its 18-year-old nephew, Frantsom Joseph. The project of the constitution providing creation of a federal legislature with participation of various national groups and equality of the nations has been developed. But this document so never also has not come into force. Later the uniform imperial constitution has been proclaimed, but also it has not been installed.
National requirements. In Czechia cheshskojazychnye and German-speaking oppositionists have united at the beginning to achieve concessions from house Gabsburgov. However their ways have dispersed, when the Czech patriots have demanded self-management for Czechia and have opposed associations in the uniform German state. Supporters moderated sights supported preservation of the Austrian empire transformed to federation on the basis of equality of the people.
In June 1848 in Prague congress of slavic leaders of Austria and representatives of foreign Slavs for discussion of political problems was going to. There was a collision of the Czech patriots with Germans. As a result the city has been occupied by the Austrian army that became the beginning of restoration of power Gabsburgov. Revolt developed in Hungary on more confused plot. On request of Koshuta the Viennese court yard has given Hungary practically full control over its internal affairs at preservation of dynastic and military communications with Austria. Serfs have been released, a wide civil freedom has been promised. But the Hungarian politicians persistently refused in the elementary human rights to the small people of kingdom which in aggregate was more than Hungarians. For Croats and the Romanian the Hungarian chauvinism was even worse, than authoritarianism Gabsburgov. These people incited by Vienna, have entered struggle against Hungarians which the Austrian armies have soon joined.
On April, 14th 1849 Koshut has proclaimed independence of Hungary. As the Austrian government had no sufficient military forces for revolt suppression, it has addressed for the help to Russian tsar Nikolay I. That has responded immediately, and the Russian armies have put a mortal blow on the Hungarian revolt. The rests of the Hungarian autonomy have been completely liquidated, itself Koshut ran. When it seemed, that dynasty Gabsburgov is on the brink of disaster, Lombardy and Venice have lifted revolt, and the Venetian republic has been revived. However the Austrian armies have suppressed mutiny and have restored domination of Austria over the Italian provinces and all Apenninsky peninsula. The Viennese court yard aspired to prevent also association of the German states not to allow Prussia to occupy a leading position in German-speaking Europe. Austria left weakened revolutionary shocks, but has saved the integrity.
Reaction and reform. Prince Felix Shvartsenberg actually operated Austria to the death in 1852, and then completeness of the power was incurred by Frants Joseph. Germanization of all people of the empire which were not speaking German was spent. The Czech patriotic movement has been suppressed, Hungarians have been pacified. In 1850 Hungary it has been united with Austria in the uniform customs union. On the concordat 1855, the Catholic church has acquired the right to own education system and the press.
On Apenninsky peninsula movement for national association was headed by the skilful politician of Sardinian kingdom (Piedmont), columns Kamillo Kavur. Its plans included clearing of Lombardy and Venice. According to the secret agreement with French emperor Napoleon III, Kavur in 1859 has provoked war with Austria. The connected ex-Sardinian forces have broken Frantsa Joseph's armies, and Austria has been compelled to refuse Lombardy. In 1860 were svergnuty the Proaustrian dynasties in the small states of Italy, and under domination of Piedmont the incorporated Italian kingdom was formed. In 1884 Austria in the union with Prussia has begun war against Denmark for the control over small territories SHlezviga and Golshtejna.
In 1866 dispute on section of the Danish trophies has led to war between Austria and Prussia. On the party of Prussia Italy has acted, and the Austrian empire has suffered defeat. However, the conditions of the peace treaty dictated by Bismarck, have appeared quite tolerant. Thin calculation of the Prussian chancellor consisted in it. House Gabsburgov should refuse the historical role in the German affairs, not conceding Prussia any territories (except the earths selected at Denmark). On the other hand, though the Austrian armies have broken Italians on a land and into the sea, Venice has been passed Italy, a number of the Italian areas remained under control Gabsburgov.
Birth of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Loss of territories and prestige has caused in the new form of relations between Austria and Hungary. The various projects of the constitution providing creation of incorporated parliament, have been prepared without participation of Hungarians. At last, in 1867 well-known "compromise" (Ausgleich) has been developed. The Austrian empire proclaimed in 1804, has been transformed in dualisticheskuju Austro-Hungary, with leadership of Hungarians to Hungary and the Austrians – other part of the new state. In sphere of the international relations both states should operate as a unit, saving an autonomy in internal affairs.
The constitutional reforms. The further working out of the constitution became one of directions of reorganisation of the government of 1860th years in the Austrian half of two-uniform monarchy. The constitution guaranteed a civil freedom and equality for all language groups. The state parliament of two houses – rejhsrat has been founded. Deputies of the lower chamber were selected during indirect elections. The constitution provided large powers of a legislature which should be going to once a year. The cabinet was otvetstven before the lower chamber. Both chambers possessed equal legislature. One of constitution paragraphs (well-known article XIV) represented to the monarch of power to publish the decrees which were valid the law between sessions of parliament.
Legislative Assemblies of 17 Austrian earths (landtagi) were received more by large powers, however a crown appointed deputies who could cancel decisions landtagov. Originally landtagi selected deputies of the lower chamber rejhsrata, but in 1873 direct elections on districts and curia (class or qualification categories of voters) have been entered.
Political parties. Avstrijsko-German deputies have been divided into competing political groups. The greatest group was made by adherents of a monarchy. In 1880th years two new parties – Hristiansko-social and Social democratic have been organised. The first of them acted mainly on behalf of avstrijsko-German peasants and petty bourgeoisie, and its leaders were correct dynasties Gabsburgov and Catholic church.
Social democrats declared the adherence Charles Marx's to doctrine, but supported carrying out of political and social reforms by the constitutional methods. In a leader of the party there was party leader Victor Adler and the theorist in the field of national problems Otto Bauer. Disputes on an ethnic question weakened movement, nevertheless it conducted successful campaign for granting of the general suffrage to all adult men.
There was also small, but a noisy fraction velikogermantsev which demanded association of areas with the German-speaking population with the German empire. This current in the Austrian policy has had serious influence on Adolf Hitler's mood which has spent some years in Vienna.
National minorities. Czechs demanded to give to Czechia the same status in a monarchy what was received by Hungary, but and have not managed it to achieve. Development of possibilities in an education sphere and economic prosperity gave the big confidence to the Czech middle class. As a whole the Czech patriots, such as Tomash Masarik, achieved for Czechia internal self-management, not demanding destruction of empire and creation of the independent Czech state. In a diet of Czechia there was a struggle between deputies-Czechs and representatives of avstrijsko-German elements. Cheshsko-German enmity has paralysed from time to time parliament job in Vienna. Czechs have achieved concessions in the field of language, access on public service and in an education sphere, and still it was not accepted any constitutional formula which could satisfy claims of Czechs and at the same time appear comprehensible to avstro-Germans.
Poles in Galicia have received considerable degree of an autonomy which quite satisfied them. This province became a subject of envy and admiration of the Polish patriots living in the Russian and prussko-German parts of Poland. Among numerous Ukrainian minority in Galicia excitements because of discrimination and reprisals from Poles proceeded, and the small layer on number of the Ukrainian intelligency struggled for the rights of the compatriots. One of Ukrainian fractions supported political association with Ukrainians of Russian empire.
From all Austrian people the greatest trouble of the Viennese court yard was called by southern Slavs (Slovenes, Croats, Serbs). The number of representatives of this national group has increased in 1908 when Austro-Hungary annexed the former Turkish province Bosnia and Herzegovina. Southern Slavs in Austria strongly differed on the sights. Some of them aspired to unite with kingdom Serbia, others were happy with existing position, the third preferred creation of the South slavic state within the limits of the Gabsburgsky monarchy.
This last alternative meant education of the state covering areas with the South slavic population as Hungary, and Austria, with the same status, as the Austrian empire or the Hungarian kingdom. This offer has met known support in Austria, but has been negatively apprehended almost by all Hungarian politicians. Wider projects of a reorganisation of a monarchy in the federal union of the people were offered also, but the concept gabsburgskih the "United States" so never and has not been carried out in practice.
There was no unity and among the Italian minority of Austria living in southern Tirole, Trieste and its vicinities. Some inhabitants speaking in Italian, silently agreed with board of Vienna whereas militant separatists called for association with Italy. Partly for calm of national feelings, partly in reply to strong pressure from social democrats in 1907 for the adult man's population on elections the general suffrage has been entered into the Austrian parliament (rejhsrat). However political excitements in multinational empire have amplified. In the spring 1914 in job rejhsrata has been declared having rummaged, and the parliament was not going to within three years.
Economic development. In Czechia, Vienna and other city centres there was a fast development of the industry. In a number of branches, especially in steelmaking and a sugar industry, for regulation of output, maintenance of the prices and employment the associations of firms which were called as "cartels" and in many respects similar to large trusts in the USA have been created.
The highest level of development mining and a manufacturing industry have reached in Czechia. In Plzene in 1868 Emil SHkoda has started to let out cars and the equipment, and by the end of century its steelmaking and mining enterprises competed on quality of made production to factories Kruppa in Germany. The son of Czech rural shoemaker Tomash Batja has created the largest shoe concern of Europe. Factories specialised in the Viennese area on manufacture of cotton and silk fabrics, carpets and chemicals, cars, arms, products from a skin and a tree, musical instruments. The city of Shtajr has become famous for the military factories, and the cities of Shtirii have saved reputation as the centres of the metalcutting and textile industry.
The Austrian parliament has passed the laws regulating job at the textile enterprises and mines, obligatory insurance upon illness and accidents has been entered. Under the guidance of Charles Ljugera, the burgomaster of Vienna in 1897–1910 and a member of Hristiansko-social party empire capital has turned in the sample of "municipal socialism».
The network of railways has captured all territory of empire. For a number of years, preceding a financial collapse 1873, 9600 km of tracks have been laid. The government has got in the property almost 90 % of all network. The Austrian financiers and engineers participated in building of railways in the east, in particular well-known East railway which passed through the Balkans and has reached Istanbul.
Navigation on the rivers of Austria developed, channels broke, ports and roads were modernised. Trieste not quite convenient for the big merchant marine fleet, has turned to the prospering centre of world trade. Not possessing sufficient financial resources, the country strongly depended on the foreign investments necessary for development of the industry, railways and trade enterprises. To Austria the big French capitals on channels of a family of Rothschilds and capitals of large banks of Germany have directed.
Within the limits of the Austro-Hungarian trading union trade between two parts of a monarchy has blossomed; Austria delivered the industrial goods in exchange for the foodstuffs and raw materials from Hungary.
Vienna at the peak of glory. To 1914 multinational population of Vienna has exceeded 2 million persons. To a city there came Germans, Czechs, Jews; German-speaking inhabitants made now only half of population of Vienna. The new epoch for «the tsarina of Danube» has opened, when medieval fortifications constraining a city (1858–1860) have been taken down and on their place the ring street Ringshtrasse has been laid. Along it beautiful public buildings were under construction. Suburbs have been switched on in city line with extensive parks, woods and vineyards.
Activity of scientists, writers, artists and sculptors has given to Vienna the international popularity. The well-known medical school involved set of foreign scientists, and Zigmund Freud has created a new science – psychoanalysis. Any city in the world could not surpass Vienna in the field of music. Johann Strauss-son composed waltzes and the operettas which have generated a myth about carefree Vienna, a fun and pleasure city. Composers Johannes Brahms and Anton Brukner have achieved a recognition all over the world. In opera art Rihard Strauss shone, special popularity to it was brought by an opera the Gentleman of a rose. The libretto for it and for many other things compositions have been written by the poet and playwright Gugo background Gofmanstalem.
The outlook of a cultural part of the Viennese society last decades empire existence was reflected in underlined realistic stories and novels, such as Road on Arthur Shnitslera's open space. The country life was represented by Ludwig Antsengruber; in its novel Manor Shternshtejn customs and customs of rural Austria are described. Follower Antsengrubera, Peter Rozegger, has represented its rural life native SHtirii in novel Bogoiskatel and other products. From a German part of Czechia occurred the author of one of the most popular pacifistic novels of an epoch Down with the weapon! – baroness Berta background Zutner.
The First World War. News about the war beginning has been met with enthusiasm. Danger of approach of Russian army has rallied the Austrians, war was supported even by social democrats. Official and informal propagation inspired will to a victory and has appreciably dipped international contradictions. The unity of the state was provided with the rigid military dictatorship, dissatisfied forced to obey. Only in Czechia war did not call special delight. All resources of a monarchy have been mobilised for victory achievement, however a management operated extremely inefficiently.
Military failures in the war beginning have undermined spirit of army and the population. Streams of refugees have directed from war zones to Vienna and other cities. Many public buildings have been converted in hospitals. The introduction of Italy into war against a monarchy in May 1915 has strengthened a military heat, especially among Slovenes. When territorial claims of Romania to Austro-Hungary have been rejected, Bucharest has come over to the side Antanty.
While the Romanian armies receded, eighty-year-old emperor Frants Joseph has died. The new governor, young Charles I, the person with the limited abilities, has discharged people against whom its predecessor leant. In 1917 Char
