Early cultures. The territory of Peru has been populated with people about 20 thousand B.C. Already in 5 thousand B.C. in coastal areas agriculture and cattle breeding (cultivation of llamas) developed, in 2 thousand B.C. grew up corn and irrigational structures were under construction. A culture high level have reached such civilisations, as CHavin (andskaja area, 2-1 thousand B.C.), parakas (southern coast, 1 thousand B.C. – 1 thousand our era), Tiauanako (the south of the country, 1 thousand our era), Naska (southern coast, 1 thousand our era), Mochika (northern coast, 1–8 centuries of our era), CHimu (the north of Peru, 13–14 centuries), etc.
Empire inkov. The confederation which has developed after 12 century of American Indian tribes led by inkami in 15 centuries has subdued the huge territory which was switching on modern Perus, Ecuador, a part of Colombia, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. State Tauantisuju capital («Empire of four parts of the world») became a city of Cuzco in Peru, the population reached 8-15 million people the Earth in empire belonged to the state led by the Supreme leader – Great inkoj. Peasants-obshchinniki processing it executed heavy duties and contained leaders, officers and priests. In the beginning of 16 centuries the power of emperors inkov has weakened because of incessant internal wars between various applicants for a throne and revolts of the subdued tribes.
The Spanish domination. In 1532 on empire territory the small group of the Spanish conquistadors led by Fransisko Pisarro has intruded. Having used struggle between two applicants for a throne – Ataualpoj and Uaskarom, Spaniards have easily won. At first they a deceit have captured Ataualpu, have received for it the huge repayment, and then have killed. In 1533 conquerors have seized Cuzco, and the empire began to break up. Successors Uaskara were fixed in mountains where continued resistance to 1572 when governor Tupak Amaru was lost last inksky.
In 1533 Pisarro has based the city of Lima which has turned to capital of the Spanish possession in America. After fierce struggle for the power between various groups of conquistadors in which course in 1541 has been killed Pisarro, the Spanish crown declared Peru in 1543 vice-kingdom. Spaniards (8 thousand from 1,5 million population in 1570) have organised estates-enkomendy on which work of peasants-obshchinnikov was used, have introduced Catholic belief, have imported black slaves from Africa for job on mines. At colonial board in Peru began to cultivate wheat and rice, to plant large horned livestock. Industrial manufactories began to be under construction. The Spanish authorities rigidly supervised an economic life and trade of Peru. Only in 1760 – 1770th years trade between separate Spanish colonies has been allowed. After that the economy began to develop more fast, landowner landholding has amplified.
The discontent of peasants has led to the revolt 1780–1783 which leader Gabriel Kondorkanki has proclaimed itself inkoj Tupak Amaru II. Revolt has been hardly suppressed, its leader and thousand its supporters are executed. Have not led to success and national performances in war of the Latin American colonies for independence in 1808–1815. Only in 1820 on country territory the liberation army of general José de St Martin has entered from the south. Having taken Lima, it 1821 has proclaimed on July, 28th independence of Peru. An independent state of Peru in 19 centuries In 1822 Constituent congress has proclaimed Peru republic and has accepted the first constitution. However struggle against the Spanish armies proceeded. The mother country tried to keep Peru as the last stronghold on continent. In 1823 the Colombian armies and St Martin have entered into Peru has conceded the power to their ordering Simonu Bolivar which in 1824 has broken Spaniards in battles at Junin and Ajakucho. The last Spanish garrison in Callao was handed over in 1826.
The governments of St Martin (1821–1822) and Bolivar (1823–1827) have cancelled podushnuju a tax, personal duties of Indians and have released the black slaves participating in battles against the Spanish power. The bolivar has disposed to sell state and to distribute common lands. During landed property repartition large plots have passed to officers and the nobility. However military men have entered the union with old landowner aristocracy and have made parevorot. After revolution in 1827 duties and slavery have been restored podushnaja a tax. The economic power has concentrated in hands of 300 landowner families of coast which exported production abroad. The industry in the country began to develop only from the end 1830.
Ruling circles of Peru conducted among themselves incessant struggle for the power that led to frequent change of presidents. In 1835–1839 country entered into confederation with Bolivia under the guidance of the Bolivian dictator – the marshal de Santa Cruz. President Ramon Kastilja (1845–1851, 1854–1862) has spent a series of liberal reforms, having cancelled church desjatinu, podushnuju a tax about Indians and slavery. It encouraged immigration, including immigrants from China, promoted activization of workings out of deposits guano and saltpeter, to development of the telegraphic message and building of railways. In 1856 Constituent assembly has accepted the constitution which limited the presidential power a little. But in 1860 president has achieved the assertion of the new organic law which operated to 1920. It provided the authoritative power of the president and entered the high voting qualification.
In 1864–1866 when Peru was not able to pay obligations under the external bond debt, Spain has made an attempt to return itself the control over the country, but the country, in the union with Bolivia, Chile and Ecuador has rejected of its pressure (the First Pacific war). President Manuel Pardo (1872–1876) has limited the power of military men, has developed public jobs, promoted lifting of education and tried to stimulate economy. In 1873 government has established the control over extraction of a main subject of export – saltpeter that has displeased the British, German and Chilean companies. They began to push the Chilean government to war from Peru which, in turn, has entered the union with Bolivia. Country position became complicated that stocks guano were exhausted, and in presidency of general Mariano Ignasio Prado (1876–1879), the country has actually become bankrupt.
In 1879 Chiles has begun war with Peru and Bolivia which proceeded to 1884 (the Second Pacific war). During its Chilean armies have gained a number of victories and in 1881 have taken possession of Lima where have delivered at the power a puppet government. Resistance was headed by president Nicolas de Perola (1879–1881). Then the guerrilla war which has forced Chileans in 1883 to keep Lima was developed. According to the peace treaty 1884, Peru conceded Chile province Tarapaka with rich deposits of saltpeter and for ten years passed provinces Takna and Arika with the subsequent decision of their destiny by plebiscite. However dispute on their accessory has ended only in 1929 when province Takna has been returned Peru, and Arika remained for Chile.
In 1885 Peruvian armies have dethroned the Prochilean government leaning against the Sivilistsky (Civil) consignment (it is based in 1871). Presidents – general Andres Kaseres (1886–1890, 1894–1895), colonel Remihio Morales Bermudes (1890–1894) and their Konstitutsionalistsky consignment were guided by wide attraction in the broken country of foreign investments, in hands of foreign holders have passed main resources of Peru. Followers N dissatisfied with it de Peroly (Democratic party) and sivilisty in 1895 have lifted revolt and have won.
President Perola (1895–1899) has entered election by direct vote of the head of the state, has reorganised army, has strengthened public finances. The protectionist economic policy promoted development of the Peruvian industry leaning against national businessmen.
The turning point in history of Peru has coincided on time with opening of Panama canal (1914) and sweeping changes in the world, connected with the First World War beginning. This time is characterised by an exit on political arena Augusto Legii-and-solsedo, most an outstanding public figure in history of Peru of the beginning of 20 centuries It was the president of the country with 1908 on 1912 and with 1919 on 1930.
Conditions formed in the country under the influence of events, connected with the First World War course, with revolutions in Mexico and Russia, promoted lifting of political activity among the Peruvian students. Creation in Mexico the Peruvian emigrants of the American national-revolutionary alliance (АПРA), powerful reformist movement in which the basic role was played by students became one of forms of the protest against dictatorial mode Legii. In struggle against dictatorship the increasing sharing was accepted by Indians and metises.
Legija remained with the power to 1930 when as a result of the burst world economic crisis inflow of foreign investments has run out. It has been displaced from the post and imprisoned as a result of a military coup d'etat led by colonel Luis Sanchez Serro who remained with the power to 1933. Peru in 1900–1968. The subsequent presidents Eduardo Lopez (1899–1903), José Pardo (1904–1908), Augusto Bernardino Legija (1908–1912) continued a policy of economic development. They encouraged foreign investments and increased taxes. In the beginning of 20 centuries in Peru working-class movement which was under prevailing influence of anarho-syndicalists began to develop. In 1911–1913 country have shaken large strikes. President Guillermo Bilinghurst (1912–1914) has gone on realisation of reforms. He has allowed activity of trade unions and realisation of strikes, has entered statutory arbitration in industrial conflicts, has cut down military expenses and has increased appropriations for public health services, prepared a social laws. Dissatisfied with concessions right in 1914 have made a military coup d'etat; the power was seized by colonel Oscar Benavides, and in 1915–1919 on a post of the president there was saharozavodchik H.Pardo leaning on sivilistov, liberals and constitutionalists.
The First World War has called vigorous growth of the prices and falling of a standard of living of the population in Peru. In 1919 country have shaken general strikes against the dearness, organised by anarho-syndicalist trade unions. In these conditions the former president A.B.Legija has made revolution and has established own dictatorship (1919–1930). It has installed the new constitution 1920 which declared bowels the state property. The circle of voters has been expanded, the progressive profitable tax is established and the system of social insurance for employees is created. Country communities of Indians have received the status of legal bodies. At the same time, Legija force has suppressed working both student's movement and revolts of Indians.
In struggle against dictatorship Legija there was an oppositional movement of "the American national-revolutionary alliance» (APRA) led by former student's leader Victor Raul Ajja-de-la-Torre. The next years members APRA have turned to one of leading political forces of the country.
The world economic crisis of the end 1920 – the beginnings of 1930th years promoted power Legija falling. In 1930 it was will dethrone military men led by colonel Luis Sanchez Serro. It has cancelled results of the presidential elections 1931 which have brought victory Ajja-de-la-Torre, has suppressed performances apristov and again has forbidden their consignment. In 1932 colonel Sanchez Serro has begun war with Colombia for the boundary city of Letisiju. In 1933 the new constitution which entered the general suffrage has been accepted. However on April, 30th 1933 Sanchez Serro has been killed.
The new president – general Oscar Benavides (1933–1939) did not recognise results of elections 1936 which have brought again a victory to members APRA. In 1939 it promoted election as head of the state Manuelja Prado-AND-ugarteche (1939–1945). At him Peru has won in 1941–1942 from Ecuador disputable territory in Amazonia the area in 200 thousand sq. km and actively delivered in the USA raw materials and the foodstuffs necessary for needs of the Second World War. In February 1945 Perus declared war of Germany.
On presidential elections 1945 victory was gained by lawyer José Luis Bkstamante Rivero who has been put forward by National-democratic front – a wide coalition centrist and left parties (Detsentralistsky, Liberal, APRA, communists, etc.) . President Bustamante (1945–1948) otmenenil censorship, has restored the civil rights and has released political prisoners. The government has strengthened the control over the prices and exportation of profits abroad, has strengthened economy public sector, has increased a salary minimum level, has developed housing construction, has taken measures on a development of education and has closed the American military base in the Ale-pato. However in October 1948 administration Bustamante has appeared in deep crisis because of the conflict with APRA (with 1945 People party). In October 1948 the seamen of Callao supported by members APRA have risen. Having suppressed revolt, the army has dethroned president Bustamante. To the power the military junta led by general Manuelem Apolinario Odrija who in 1950 has been selected by the president (1950–1956) has come.
Military men have cancelled a civil freedom, have dismissed trade unions, have forbidden activity of opposition parties and have seized political opponents. Severe censorship has been entered. The social problems aggravated by a rise in prices, Odrija tried to decide by means of wide public jobs. In foreign policy its mode completely was guided by the USA with which in 1952 the military agreement has been concluded. Peru has agreed from the USA about dispatch of the Peruvian armies for sharing in war in Korea.
In July 1950 Odrija has suppressed popular uprising in Arequipa where insurgents have proclaimed creation of "the national government». In 1954–1955 new strikes and protest performances have followed. In long run, the dictator has been compelled to agree for realisation of democratic elections.
Presidential elections 1956 have brought again a victory to M.Prado-i-Ugarteche who has created own party Democratic movement and got support of forbidden members APRA. It has bypassed on Fernando Belaunde Terri's 9 %, the leader of a fresh consignment National action. President Prado (1956–1962) has restored a civil freedom, has allowed activity of political parties and trade unions. He in wide scales spent public jobs, has increased the salary. But soon its government has faced economic problems: a rise in prices, inflation, reduction of receipts from export. To stabilise position has managed Pedro Beltran, nominated in 1959 head of the government and the Minister of Finance. In 1960 Perus has broken off diplomatic relations with Cuba.
On elections in June 1962 leader apristov V.R.Aja-de-la-Torre supported by Democratic movement, social democrats, etc., has collected 33 % of voices, 32 % have got to F.Belaunde Terri and 28 % – Odrija. Not to admit the agreement between apristami and adherents of the former dictator, armed forces have made on July, 18th 1962 revolution and have nominated realisation of new election. It have brought a victory to F.Belaunde Terri which has been put forward by National action and Christian Democratic party (it is formed in 1956). Having received 39 % of voices, it on 5 % has advanced Ajja-de-la-Torre.
Government Belaunde Terri (1963–1968) has faced growth of oppositional moods in company. Country performances in mountain areas, grabs of the landowner earths did not cease. The insurgent movement which heat managed to be brought down only in 1965 by means of army has flashed. To calm protests, Belaunde Terri has proclaimed in 1964 partial agrarian reform which provided ekspropriatsiju at landowners of not processed earths in mountain areas and their distribution among peasants. A number of measures of social character has been accepted. However by the board end the prices began to grow fast, the population standard of living fell. Administration Belaunde encountered the increasing animosities of armed forces.
In the Peruvian army during this period have gained significant distribution various left and left-centrist ideas (levohristianskie, social democratic, populist, etc.), which steels are known under a name of "the Peruvian socialism». Military men with growing discontent looked at economic dependence of Peru on the USA. When the president has signed the unprofitable contract for Peru with the American petroleum company «Interneshnal petroleum kompani», military men 1968 have dethroned it on October, 3rd. The power has passed to the Revolutionary government of armed forces led by general Juan Velasko Alvarado (1968–1975).
Transformations of the military government 1968–1980. The military government has developed and has started to implement a plan "Inka" which provided realisation of deep social transformations. It has nationalised the petrocrafts belonging to the American companies, oil refining and export of minerals, a telephone and telegraphic network, trade in a fish meal and cod-liver oil, has taken in hand main industries, including metallurgical and chemical. The state companies in spheres of oil extracting, mining, air freights, lova and processings of fish have been created. The authorities "peruanizirovali" banks, have entered the state control over currency transactions and have limited exportation of profits abroad. The foreign companies were supposed in mining branch only under condition of labour legislation strict observance. The military government has passed the law on «an industrial community», entering sharing of workers in management of the large and average enterprises. Along with public sector the branched out co-operative sector has been created.
About 1969 government has developed realisation of a radical agrarian reform. Aspiring to liquidate latifundii, the authorities have limited the maximum sizes of ground possession, expropriated agricultures, having transformed them in production co-operatives, have cancelled otrabotochnuju the rent and other duties of peasants. The Earth was passed ex rights sales to peasants, communities and co-operative societies. In foreign policy the military government followed an independent policy. Reducing dependence on the USA, it has sent the American military mission and employees of the program "Peace corps" and developed cooperation with the countries of Latin America. Simultaneously it has established diplomatic relations with the USSR, Cuba, the countries of the Soviet block and has entered into with them economic agreements.
Despite the taken measures, military men did not manage to solve economic problems of Peru and to prevent decrease in a standard of living of the population. In the country there has passed a wave of strikes and protest performances. In August 1975 military management has displaced Velasko Alvarado and has nominated as the president of general Fransisko Moralesa Bermudesa (1975–1980). He declared the beginning of "the second stage» revolutionary process, has ceased to consider the state and co-operative sector as the leader, involved foreign investments, denationalised a number of the enterprises and has dismissed «industrial communities». In the country the economic crisis accrued, the public debt and inflation grew, mass character was acquired by unemployment.
Not having coped with problems, military men have passed the power to civilians. In 1978 an election in the Constituent assembly which in 1979 has accepted the new constitution has been held. In 1980 in the country have taken place presidential and parliamentary elections.
Civil board 1980–1992. On presidential elections in May 1980 the former president Belaunde Terri who has received more of 45 % of voices has won. 27 % of the voted voters have preferred apristu Viljanueva del Kampo, 10 % – to the candidate of a national-Christian consignment Luis Bedojja Rejesu, 17 % – to isolated left candidates. Having come to the power, Belaunde (1980–1985) has cancelled the large part of reforms of the military government. He tried to create new jobs, having begun wide construction projects in a zone of tropical woods. But the economic recession accrued, as a result of reduction of incomes of fishings. The government has been compelled to suspend payments on foreign debts. Under pressing of the USA the government of Peru began to take measures on reduction in the country of plantations cooks, a main source of incomes of Indians that has called their discontent used maoistami from organisation Sendero Luminoso which have developed have developed insurgent movement in mountain areas.
Presidential elections of April 1985 have brought to the candidate of ruling National action Haveru Alva Orlandini shattering defeat (7 % of voices). The victory has got to leader APRA Alan Garcia Peres (53 %). The representative left A.Barrantes Lingan has received 25 % of voices, L.Bedojja Rejes (NHP) – 12 %.
Alan Garcia (1985–1990) tried to stimulate increase in production, to reduce import and to limit external bond debt payment (on these purposes it was taken away no more than 10 % of annual export earnings). The "strict economy" mode has called mass discontent, strikes and protests which severely choked. To 1987 foreign investments into Peru have practically ceased, and inflation began to grow again. Then president Garcia has nationalised private banks and assurance companies, and also has strengthened the government control over economy, however in 1990 rate of inflation has reached 3000 % a year. Insurgent movement "senderistov", attacking not only on representatives of the power, but also on active workers of social movements and the left organisations accrued.
All old political forces have appeared diskreditirovanymi. To elections 1990 on a scene new groupings have acted. The movement "Freedom" created by writer Mario Vargasom Losoj which in the past adhered to the left sights, called for radical measures against inflation and to "open market" introduction. Supported by National action and NHP, Vargas Losa has managed to collect 33 % of voices. The son of Japanese emigrants Alberto Fuhimori, the expert in agriculture, has acted from populist items. The movement created by him «Перемены-90» promised to increase well-being of broad masses of the population, to promote development of rural districts and to begin negotiations with insurgents. Fuhimori has received 29 % of voices. 23 % dostalischlenu APRA Alva Castro, 18 % – to two left candidates. In the second round, having got of support of supporters APRA and left, Fuhimori has won (62,5 % of voices).
Having entered in 1990 on a post of the president, Fuhimori has generated an office of technocrats and has started realisation of measures to "rigid economy» and realisation of market reforms. Having faced resistance of parliament, the president, having got of support of a management of armed forces, has made on April, 5th 1992 revolution: has suspended the constitution, has dismissed parliament, has seized leaders of opposition and has discharged of a post the majority of members of the Supreme court of judicature. In August 1992 leader of movement «Sendero luminoso» Abimael Gusman has been seized by the governmental armies.
Dictatorship Fuhimori 1992–2000. In November 1992 in the conditions of dictatorship an election in the Democratic constituent congress has been held. 44 places from 80 have got to the ruling block «Перемены-90 – the New majority», 6 – to Movement of updating close to a mode, 7 – to Independent front moralizatsii, 8 – NHP and only 15 – to democratic and left groupings. The basic political parties of opposition boycotted elections. In 1993 the new constitution which considerably expanded authorities of the president has taken effect. It has fixed a market orientation of economy and has simplified process of privatisation of strategic sectors. To the state only regulating function, first of all, in the field of defence, public health services, education and an infrastructure was taken away. According to the constitution, some key enterprises, for example, the largest petrocleaning factory of the country (1996) have been privatised.
During struggle against political opponents and insurgents the mode, leaning against armed forces and secret services, made numerous infringements of rights of the person. Punishments, illegal arrests, tortures. In 1995 government has granted amnesty to all persons who have infringed human rights «within the limits of antiterrorist campaign». Fuhimori it was possible to break the basic forces "senderistov" and other insurgents. In December 1996 group «Revolutionary movement Tupak Amaru» (MRTA) has seized the Japanese embassy in which there was a set of officials of the government, and kept it till April 1997, achieving clearing of political prisoners. The building has been taken by storm by armies, and leaders MRTA are killed.
In 1995–1998 power have spent sterilisation more than 250 thousand women (many of them – violently).
By means of draconian measures in economy and reductions of social costs the mode has achieved that the rate of inflation to the beginning 1993 was reduced to 57 %, and in 1994 – to 29 %. In 1993 real economic growth has made 7 %. The international currency fund happy with actions of the president, has agreed to reinstate administration of loans. Peru has agreed with the basic lenders about re-structuring of the external bond debt. In 1997 it has reached 30,5 billion dollars. At the same time, policy Fuhimori has called the further falling of a standard of living: more than 50 % of the population lived in the conditions of poverty (including 20 % – in complete poverty). Already in the late nineties the economic situation again began to worsen, in 1998 gross national products has grown all on 0,7 %.
In 1995 Fuhimori has spent presidential and parliamentary elections. Having typed more than 64 % of voices, he has easily won the main contender – the former secretary general of United Nations Havera Peres de Kueljara, put forward by oppositional movement «the Union for Peru». The ruling block «Перемены-90 – the New majority» has won 67 of 120 places in parliament.
In the field of foreign policy board Fuhimori is noted by boundary war with Ecuador in 1995. The conflict managed to be settled only in 1998 when the peace agreement has been signed. It included exact demarcation of border, creation of the demilitarised zone, transfer of territory Tivinsa to long-term use to Ecuador and granting to it of the rights to navigation in a border. In the late nineties the dictator began to prepare for re-election sine die. In August 1996 the corresponding law has been accepted by parliament; the judges, trying to resist to this decision, have been dismissed, and oppositional mass media were closed.
By degrees the opposition against policy Fuhimori amplified. In September 1998 trade unions, the organisations of students and pensioners have spent day of the protest against neoliberal economic policy and plans of re-election of the president for the third term. In April 1999 in all basic cities of the country the general strike has been spent.
In December 1999 constituency election committee nominated by the president has confirmed its right to re-election. The opposition has called for civil disobedience and collected signatures, requiring referendum realisation. However the collected signatures have been ignored by a mode. In April 2000 have been organised presidential and parliamentary elections. As declared the authorities, Fuhimori the leading candidate of opposition – the leader of the union «Possible Peru» Alehandro Toledo – 40,3 % has collected 49,8 % of the voices. Governmental block "Peru-2000" has received 52 places in parliament from 120.
The opposition has accused the authorities of a juggling, and A.Toledo has called for demonstrations and marches of the protest which have been dispersed by force. In these conditions of Toledo declared the failure to participate in the second round of elections, and in May 2000 Fuhimori has been again selected by the president. The opposition did not recognise elections and has responded new marches of the protest in which participated hundred thousand people. The police severely suppressed performances. During collisions of hundred people have been wounded and seized.
During 2000 public learnt about new both new scandals and the facts of corruption connected with a ruling mode. Secret service "СИН" accused of murders of critical journalists, violence and tortures, and its actual leader – the close colleague of president Vladimir Motntesino – in communications with the Colombian drug mafia. Returning Montesino in the country 2000 has called in the autumn new protests and revolts in armed forces. The leader of opposition of Toledo has called for realisation of "the March of four doomsday» which became the largest national performance in the Peruvian history and was accompanied by numerous strikes, blockade and meetings. Under the pressure of protests the mode has fallen. In November 2000 Fuhimori, were on a visit in Japan, declared the resignation. The parliament has selected new time president Valentine Panjagua, the party member National action.
Democracy restoration. Panjagua has entrusted sformirovanie H.Peresu's transition government de Kueljaru. Realisation of general election became the Primary goal of the new power. They have taken place in April 2001. A.Toledo whom the Peruvian population perceived as the leader of struggle against dictatorship, the chief who has come back from emigration apristov, former president Alan Garcia – 25,8 %, and Lurdes Flores the candidate of the right block «National unity» led by NHP Lurdes Flores – 24,3 % has received 36,5 % of the voices. In parliament «Possible Peru» has received movement 45, and apristy – 26 places. In the second round of Toledo has won Garcia and became the new president of Peru. Its government included representatives of movement «Possible Peru», Independent front moralizatsii, National action, «Andsky revival», the Union for Peru and movements «We – Peru».
From the very beginning the president of Toledo had to face sharp economic problems. He tries to decide their same neoliberal methods which called population protests. In 2002 these protests against the plan of privatisation of hydroresources and water supply have outgrown in excitements and strikes and have forced the government to recede.
